Which are considered long-term stepwise effects of radiation exposure?

Long-term stepwise effects of radiation exposure refer to the cumulative and often delayed health issues that can arise from exposure to ionizing radiation. The correct answer, which includes cancer and cataract formation, is supported by significant research in radiation biology.

Cancer is a well-established long-term effect of radiation exposure. Ionizing radiation can cause mutations in the DNA of cells, which can lead to uncontrolled growth and tumor formation over time. The latency period for radiation-induced cancer can vary, with some cancers manifesting years or even decades after exposure.

Cataract formation is another recognized long-term effect. Radiation can cause changes in the lens of the eye, resulting in cataracts, which can develop over time after exposure. The mechanism involves protein damage and changes in the lens structure, leading to clouding and visual impairment.

While damage to genetic structures is implicated in both cancer and cataract formation, the correct choice focuses specifically on the direct long-term health outcomes often used in discussions regarding the consequences of radiation exposure. Therefore, the inclusion of cancer and cataract formation as long-term effects captures the key concepts related to stepwise effects that can manifest after prolonged or significant exposure to radiation.

The other options, while related, may not encompass the full scope of what is considered