Which of the following is a long-term effect of radiation exposure?

The long-term effects of radiation exposure can manifest in various forms, and life-span shortening is recognized as a significant consequence. This effect refers to the potential for radiation exposure to reduce an individual's lifespan due to the biological damage it causes to cells and tissues over time. It is primarily linked to the cumulative dose of radiation received, which may lead to increased risks of cancer and other radiation-induced diseases that can ultimately affect longevity.

Cataract formation, while a known effect of radiation, is typically categorized as a late effect rather than a long-term effect that impacts overall lifespan. Primary radiochemical reactions are associated with the immediate biochemical interactions within cells when exposed to radiation, rather than a long-term consequence. Functional damage of cells may be a short-term effect causing immediate impairment, but it does not necessarily correlate with a measurable impact on life expectancy like life-span shortening does. Thus, life-span shortening encompasses a broader implication of radiation exposure on health over a significant period, highlighting the long-term risks associated with such exposure.